Teaching Techniques that Work:

What the research says about teaching techniques that work.

Although research studies support each of the five Secrets about teaching techniques (Secrets nine to thirteen) that emerge from the interviews with the award-winning teachers, the true secret to their success can only be captured by examining the techniques as a collective. That is, a teacher cannot selectively choose one or two of these secrets and expect a substantial impact on student learning. The significance of content knowledge cannot be under-estimated.

Teachers cannot teach what they do not know. Research clearly indicates the importance of teachers’ knowledge particularly in the areas of science and mathematics (Floden & Meniketti, 2005), however effective teaching requires that teacher know more than content. Taken together, these secrets suggest a creative, adaptive, and interactive approach to teaching that is highly dependent on the teachers’ knowledge of content and pedagogy, their in-depth knowledge of their learners, and a strategic or problem oriented approach to teaching. Their practices, which are based on a fundamental understanding of learning and the connection between teaching and learning, are supported by research.

• Supporting students’ learning requires explicit, intentional teaching strategies focused on the development of skills, knowledge, and thinking (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007; Moats, 1999; National Reading Panel, 2000).
• Optimal learning for students involves mastery of skills but the true aim of education for every child is the development of higher order skills such as reasoning, interpretation, problem solving, and analysis (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Carpenter, Blanton, Cobb, Franke, Kaput, & McClain, 2004; Lesh & Zawojewski, 2007; NCTM, 2000).
• Teaching must be differentiated so that it is tailored to meet the needs of every student because learning is optimized when a student works at a level that is “both challenging and attainable” (Moats, 1999; Middleton, 2004; Tomlinson, 2003).
• Formative assessment is the driving force behind effective teaching. Through daily informal assessments teachers determine what students do and do not understand and adapt instruction to meet students needs. Additionally, effective teachers use varied methods such as tests, observation, checklists, anecdotal records, student performances, and authentic projects (Bransford, et al., 2000; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Moats, 1999; Tomlinson, 2003; Wiliam, 2007; Guskey, 2009).
• Learners are motivated and successful when their learning is connected to the real world and when students perceive real purposes for learning. Consequently, effective teachers work with students to build background knowledge, use varied strategies to build knowledge of key vocabulary terms with particular emphasis on academic vocabulary, and take advantage of every opportunity to connect school content to the activities that are important to students in their lives (Darling-Hammond & others, 2008; Harvey, & Goudvix, 2000; Marzano, 2004; National Reading Panel, 2000; Tomlinson, 2003).
• Learning is dependent on the active involvement of the learner. Researchers talk about students being “mindfully” engaged. A key strategy to foster engagement is getting students to talk about the material. Effective teachers orchestrate instructional activities that facilitate student talk. For example, effective teachers structure class sessions to encourage students to think aloud, to explain answers, to talk with one another about conflicting answers, to debate contrasting viewpoints, to teach one another, to summarize and explain what they read, and to generate questions (Bransford et al., 2000; Carpenter, et al. 2004; Darling-Hammond & others, 2008; Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Marzano, 2004; Turner, Meyer, Midgley & Patrick, 2003).

Further Reading Related to Community

• Floden, R.E. & Meniketti, M. (2005). Research on the effects of coursework in the arts and sciences and in the foundations of education. In M. Cochran-Smith & K.M. Zeichner (Eds.) Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA Panel on research and teacher education (pp. 261-308). Washington, DC: AERA.
• Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds) (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• Carpenter, T. P., Blanton, M. L., Cobb, P., Franke, M. L., Kaput, J., McClain, K. (2004) Scaling up innovative practices in mathematics and sciences. Madison, WI: National Center for Improving Student Learning and Achievement in Mathematics and Science.
• Darling-Hammond & Others (2008). Powerful learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Teacher learning that supports student learning. In B.A. Presseisen (Ed.). Teaching for Intelligence, 2nd Edition (pp. 91-100). Corwin Press: Thousand Oaks, CA.
• Guskey, T. R. (2009). Formative assessment: The contribution of Benjamin S. Bloom. In H.L. Andrade & G.J. Cizek (Eds.), Handbook of Formative Assessment. New York, NY: Routledge.
• Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A. (2000) Strategies that work. Portland Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.
• Hiebert, J. S. & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students’ learning (pp. 371-404) in Lester, Jr., F. K. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
• Lesh, R. & Zawojewski, J. (2007). Problem solving and modeling (pp. 763-804) in Lester, Jr., F. K. (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
• Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Middleton, M. (2004). Motivating through challenge: Promoting a positive press for learning. Motivating Students, improving Schools: Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 13, 209-231.
• Moats, L. C. (1999). Teaching reading IS rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.
• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
• National Reading Panel. (2000). Reports of the subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Clearing House.
• Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Turner, J. C., Meyer, D. K., Midgley, C., Patrick, H. (2003). Teacher discourse and sixth graders’ reported affect and achievement behaviors in two high-mastery/high-performance mathematics classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 103, 357-382.
• Wiliam, D. (2007). Keeping learning on track: Classroom assessment and the regulation of learning. In F.K. Lester (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp. 1053 – 1098). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Great books or articles for teacher study groups

• Corbett, D., Wilson, B., & Williams, B. (2002). Effort and excellence in urban classrooms: Expecting and getting success. NY: TC Press. Pp. 12-28 and 131-146.
• Cushman, K., & Rogers, L. (2008). Fires in the middle school bathroom: Advice for teachers from middle schoolers. New York and London: The New Press.
• Wilson, B.L., & Corbett, H.D. (2001). Listening to urban kids: School reform and the teachers they want. Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Bohn, C.M., Roehrig, A.D., & Pressley, M. (2004). The first days of school in the classrooms of two more effective and four less effective primary-grade teachers. The Elementary School Journal, 104, 269-287.
• Bondy, E., Langley, L., Mayne, D., Williamson, P., & Forman, R. (2007). Making it meaningful and memorable: Responsive teaching in a high-stakes environment. Florida Educational Leadership, 7, 52-58.
• Bondy, E., Ross, D.D., Gallingane,C., & Hambacher, E. (2007). Culturally responsive classroom management and more: Creating environments of success and resilience. Urban Education, 42, 326-348.
• Stortz, M. G., & Nestor, K. R. (2008). It’s all about relationships: Urban middle school students speak out on effective schooling practice. In F. Peterman (Ed. ) Partnering to prepare urban teachers (pp. 77-102). NY: Peter Lang.
• Darling-Hammond & Others (2008). Powerful learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A. (2000) Strategies that work. Portland Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.
• Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.